An Outbreak of Acute Chagas Disease Possibly Spread through Oral Transmission Involving Animal Reservoirs in Eastern Colombia.

Chagas disease (CD) is a parasitic infection caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Reports of CD cases associated with oral transmission have increased, particularly in Colombia, Brazil, and Venezuela. In this investigation, parasitological, serological, and molecular tests were conducted on samples obtained from humans, mammal reservoirs, and hosts involved in the assessment of a suspected oral transmission outbreak in Cubara, Boyaca, Colombia. Seropositivity was observed in 60% (3 of 5) of index patients and 6.4% (5 of 78) of close contacts. Trypanosoma cruzi DNA was detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in 100% of index cases, 6.4% (5 of 78) of close contacts, 60% (6 of 10) of canines, and 100% (5 of 5) of opossums. In all index cases, the TcI lineage was identified, along with two cases of mixed infection (TcI/TcII-TcVI). Hemoculture revealed a flagellate presence in 80% of opossums, whereas all triatomine bugs tested negative. Our findings suggest a potential oral transmission route through contamination with opossum secretions.

Identification of infection by Leishmania spp. in wild and domestic animals in Brazil: a systematic review with meta-analysis (2001-2021).

Leishmaniasis is a zoonosis caused by protozoan species of the genus Leishmania. It generates different clinical manifestations in humans and animals, and it infects multiple hosts. Leishmania parasites are transmitted by sandfly vectors. The main objective of this systematic review was to identify the host, or reservoir animal species, of Leishmania spp., with the exception of domestic dogs, that were recorded in Brazil. This review included identification of diagnostic methods, and the species of protozoan circulating in the country. For this purpose, a literature search was conducted across index journals. This study covered the period from 2001 to 2021, and 124 studies were selected. Eleven orders possible hosts were identified, including 229 mammalian species. Perissodactyla had the highest number of infected individuals (30.69%, 925/3014), with the highest occurrence in horses. In Brazil, the most commonly infected species were found to be: horses, domestic cats, rodents, and marsupials. Bats, that were infected by one or more protozoan species, were identified as potential reservoirs of Leishmania spp. Molecular tests were the most commonly used diagnostic methods (94 studies). Many studies have detected Leishmania spp. (n = 1422): Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum (n = 705), Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis (n = 319), and Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis (n = 141). Recognizing the species of animals involved in the epidemiology and biological cycle of the protozoan is important, as this allows for the identification of environmental biomarkers, knowledge of Leishmania species can improve the control zoonotic leishmaniasis.

Refugia or reservoir? Feral goats and their role in the maintenance and circulation of benzimidazole-resistant gastrointestinal nematodes on shared pastures.

Gastrointestinal nematodes threaten the productivity of grazing livestock and anthelmintic resistance has emerged globally. It is broadly understood that wild ruminants living in sympatry with livestock act as a positive source of refugia for anthelmintic-susceptible nematodes. However, they might also act as reservoirs of anthelmintic-resistant nematodes, contributing to the spread of anthelmintic resistance at a regional scale. Here, we sampled managed sheep and cattle together with feral goats within the same property in New South Wales, Australia. Internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) nemabiome metabarcoding identified 12 gastrointestinal nematodes (Cooperia oncophora, Cooperia punctata, Haemonchus contortus, Haemonchus placei, Nematodirus spathiger, Ostertagia ostertagi, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Oesophagostomum radiatum, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Trichostrongylus rugatus). Isotype-1 ß-tubulin metabarcoding targeting benzimidazole resistance polymorphisms identified 6 of these nematode species (C. oncophora, C. punctata, H. contortus, H. placei, O. ostertagi and T. circumcincta), with the remaining 3 genera unable to be identified to the species level (Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Trichostrongylus). Both ITS-2 and ß-tubulin metabarcoding showed the presence of a cryptic species of T. circumcincta, known from domestic goats in France. Of the gastrointestinal nematodes detected via ß-tubulin metabarcoding, H. contortus, T. circumcincta, Nematodirus and Trichostrongylus exhibited the presence of at least one resistance genotype. We found that generalist gastrointestinal nematodes in untreated feral goats had a similarly high frequency of the benzimidazole-resistant F200Y polymorphism as those nematodes in sheep and cattle. This suggests cross-transmission and maintenance of the resistant genotype within the wild ruminant population, affirming that wild ruminants should be considered potential reservoirs of anthelmintic resistance.

Cardio-pulmonary nematodes of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) of Sardinia, Italy.

Cardio-pulmonary parasites, such as Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis, and Eucoleus aerophilus, pose a significant concern on account of pulmonary and cardiac problems they induce in dogs. While the red fox is known to be a key reservoir host for A. vasorum and may also play a role in transmitting C. vulpis and E. aerophilus, there has been no recent research on these parasites in foxes from Sardinia, with the most current studies dating back to 1986. A survey was conducted on red foxes in Sardinia, where a total of 51 foxes were collected, necropsied, and examined for adult worms in their hearts and lungs. The worms were identified using morphometric analysis and molecular methods. The results showed a 54.9% overall prevalence at dissection: 45.1% of the foxes were positive for E. aerophilus, 17.6% for C. vulpis, and 13.7% for A. vasorum. The molecular analyses validated the morphological characterization. In comparison to previous research, which found 13 out of 85 foxes to be positive for A. vasorum with a prevalence rate of 15.3% and 1 for E. aerophilus with a prevalence of 1.2%, this study showed an increased prevalence of E. aerophilus and C. vulpis, and a decrease in the prevalence of A. vasorum. These results indicate that the red foxes in Sardinia represent a reservoir host for cardio-pulmonary nematodes and it should be considered in the differential diagnosis of respiratory distress syndrome in dogs.

Lumbriculus variegatus (Müller, 1774) (Oligochaeta, Lumbriculidae) in Campos do Jordão State Park, São Paulo, Brazil / Lumbriculus variegatus (Müller, 1774) (Oligochaeta, Lumbriculidae) no Parque Estadual de Campos do Jordão, São Paulo, Brasil

The aim of this paper was recording the occurrence of the species Lumbriculus variegatus (Müller, 1774) (Oligochaeta, Lumbriculidae) in lotic systems of the State of São Paulo. Specimens were collected in Sapucaí River, located in Campos do Jordão State Park. The mapping of geographical distribution of this species is of interest to public health since L. variegatus may be an intermediate host of Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) (Nematoda, Dioctophymatidae), a parasite of recognized zoonotic potential. Distribution data serves as a basis for environmental monitoring and evaluation, being essential to map possible cases of the disease (Dioctophimosis) and provide information to health professionals.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi registrar a ocorrência de Lumbriculus variegatus (Müller, 1774) (Oligochaeta, Lumbriculidae) em um sistema lótico do Estado de São Paulo. Os espécimes foram coletados no rio Sapucaí, localizado no Parque Estadual de Campos do Jordão. O mapeamento da distribuição geográfica desta espécie é de interesse para saúde pública uma vez que L. variegatus pode ser um hospedeiro intermediário de Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) (Nematoda, Dioctophymatidae), parasito de reconhecido potencial zoonótico. Dados de distribuição servem de base para monitoramento e avaliação ambiental, sendo essenciais para mapear possíveis casos da doença (Dioctofimose) e fornecer informações para profissionais de saúde.

Identification and phylogenic analysis of Leishmania species among patients and reservoir hosts based on N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase gene in Central Iran.

Leishmaniosis, a vector-born disease that infects humans and other vertebrates, is the result of infection with Leishmania species belong to the family Trypanosomatidae. The present study was performed to determine the status of cutaneous leishmaniosis in Isfahan province. Samples were taken from the margin of skin ulcers of patients with suspected CL referred to the medical health centers in Isfahan province. Also, ear and snout samples were taken from the rodents. In total, 85 parasitologically positive samples were subjected to the PCR-RFLP method based on the nagt gene for identification of Leishmania species, also 11 samples were subjected to sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. For all positive samples, a 1450-1460 bp band of the nagt gene was amplified in PCR method. The digestion pattern of ACC1 enzyme in 79 of patients indicated L. major and in one sample was similar to L. tropica. Four rodent reservoirs distingue as L. major and one sample as L. turanica. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the species identification and three haplotypes were reported. The results of the current study showed that L. major is the predominant species of Leishmania parasites in Isfahan province and the main reservoir of CL is Rhombomys opimus. Also, the nagt gene is a useful and practical marker for determining different species of Leishmania parasites as well as their phylogenetic analysis.

Cytauxzoonosis.

Cytauxzoon felis is a hematoprotozoan parasite with a complex life cycle involving a tick-vector and a mammalian host. The mammalian hosts are all felidae but in the bobcat reservoir host, the parasite typically causes only a brief, self-resolving illness followed by a prolonged subclinical infection. In domestic cats, however, infection often leads to an acute febrile illness characterized by severe morbidity and mortality. Diagnosis is based on microscopic identification of parasites or molecular testing. Treatment for ill cats is expensive, difficult, and often unsuccessful. Prevention is quite possible and depends on avoidance of feeding by vector ticks.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iran: A review of epidemiological aspects, with emphasis on molecular findings.

Leishmania parasites can cause zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) by circulating between humans, rodents, and sandflies in Iran. In this study, published data were collected from scientific sources such as Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Springer, ResearchGate, Wiley Online, Ovid, Ebsco, Cochrane Library, Google scholar, and SID. Keywords searched in the articles, theses, and abstracts from 1983 to 2021 were cutaneous leishmaniasis, epidemiology, reservoir, vector, climatic factors, identification, and Iran. This review revealed that CL was prevalent in the west of Iran, while the center and south of Iran were also involved in recent years. The lack of facilities in suburban regions was an aggravating factor in the human community. Some parts of southern Iran were prominent foci of CL due the presence of potential rodent hosts in these regions. Rhombomys opimus, Meriones lybicus, and Tatera indica were well-documented species for hosting the Leishmania species in Iran. Moreover, R. opimus has been found with a coinfection of Leishmania major and L. turanica from the northeast and center of Iran. Mashhad, Kerman, Yazd, and sometimes Shiraz and Tehran foci were distinct areas for L. tropica. Molecular identifications using genomic diagnosis of kDNA and ITS1 fragments of the parasite indicated that there is heterogeneity in leishmaniasis in different parts of the country. Although cutaneous leishmaniasis has been a predicament for the health system, it is relatively under control in Iran.

Title: Leishmaniose cutanée en Iran : une synthèse des aspects épidémiologiques, mettant l'accent sur les découvertes moléculaires. Abstract: Les parasites Leishmania peuvent établir une leishmaniose cutanée zoonotique (LC) en circulant entre les humains, les rongeurs et les phlébotomes en Iran. Dans cette étude, les données publiées ont été collectées à partir de ressources scientifiques telles que Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Springer, ResearchGate, Wiley Online, Ovid, Ebsco, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar et SID. Les mots-clés recherchés dans les articles, les thèses et les résumés de 1983 à 2021 étaient leishmaniose cutanée, épidémiologie, réservoir, vecteur, facteurs climatiques, identification et Iran. Cet examen a révélé que la LC est répandue dans l'ouest de l'Iran, tandis que le centre et le sud de l'Iran sont également impliqués ces dernières années. Le manque d'équipements dans les régions suburbaines est un facteur aggravant dans la communauté humaine. Certaines parties du sud de l'Iran sont des foyers importants de LC en raison de la présence d'hôtes potentiels de rongeurs dans ces régions. Rhombomys opimus, Meriones lybicus et Tatera indica sont des espèces bien documentées pour héberger les espèces de Leishmania en Iran. De plus, R. opimus a été trouvé avec une co-infection de Leishmania major et L. turanica au nord-est et au centre de l'Iran. Mashhad, Kerman, Yazd et parfois des foyers de Shiraz et de Téhéran sont des zones distinctes pour L. tropica. Les identifications moléculaires utilisant le diagnostic génomique des fragments d'ADNk et ITS1 du parasite ont indiqué qu'il existe une hétérogénéité dans la leishmaniose dans différentes parties du pays. Bien que la leishmaniose cutanée ait été une situation difficile pour le système de santé, elle est relativement contrôlée en Iran.

High prevalence does not necessarily equal maintenance species: Avoiding biased claims of disease reservoirs when using surveillance data.

Many pathogens of public health and conservation concern persist in host communities. Identifying candidate maintenance and reservoir species is therefore a central component of disease management. The term maintenance species implies that if all species but the putative maintenance species were removed, then the pathogen would still persist. In the absence of field manipulations, this statement inherently requires a causal or mechanistic model to assess. However, we lack a systematic understanding of (i) how often conclusions are made about maintenance and reservoir species without reference to mechanistic models (ii) what types of biases may be associated with these conclusions and (iii) how explicitly invoking causal or mechanistic modelling can help ameliorate these biases. Filling these knowledge gaps is critical for robust inference about pathogen persistence and spillover in multihost-parasite systems, with clear implications for human and wildlife health. To address these gaps, we performed a literature review on the evidence previous studies have used to make claims regarding maintenance or reservoir species. We then developed multihost-parasite models to explore and demonstrate common biases that could arise when inferring maintenance potential from observational prevalence data. Finally, we developed new theory to show how model-driven inference of maintenance species can minimize and eliminate emergent biases. In our review, we found that 83% of studies used some form of observational prevalence data to draw conclusions on maintenance potential and only 6% of these studies combined observational data with mechanistic modelling. Using our model, we demonstrate how the community, spatial and temporal context of observational data can lead to substantial biases in inferences of maintenance potential. Importantly, our theory identifies that model-driven inference of maintenance species elucidates other streams of observational data that can be leveraged to correct these biases. Model-driven inference is an essential, yet underused, component of multidisciplinary studies that make inference about host reservoir and maintenance species. Better integration of wildlife disease surveillance and mechanistic models is necessary to improve the robustness and reproducibility of our conclusions regarding maintenance and reservoir species.

Over-dispersed Trypanosoma cruzi parasite load in sylvatic and domestic mammals and humans from northeastern Argentina.

BACKGROUND: The distribution of parasite load across hosts may modify the transmission dynamics of infectious diseases. Chagas disease is caused by a multi-host protozoan, Trypanosoma cruzi, but the association between host parasitemia and infectiousness to the vector has not been studied in sylvatic mammalian hosts. We quantified T. cruzi parasite load in sylvatic mammals, modeled the association of the parasite load with infectiousness to the vector and compared these results with previous ones for local domestic hosts. METHODS: The bloodstream parasite load in each of 28 naturally infected sylvatic mammals from six species captured in northern Argentina was assessed by quantitative PCR, and its association with infectiousness to the triatomine Triatoma infestans was evaluated, as determined by natural or artificial xenodiagnosis. These results were compared with our previous results for 88 humans, 70 dogs and 13 cats, and the degree of parasite over-dispersion was quantified and non-linear models fitted to data on host infectiousness and bloodstream parasite load. RESULTS: The parasite loads of Didelphis albiventris (white-eared opossum) and Dasypus novemcinctus (nine-banded armadillo) were directly and significantly associated with infectiousness of the host and were up to 190-fold higher than those in domestic hosts. Parasite load was aggregated across host species, as measured by the negative binomial parameter, k, and found to be substantially higher in white-eared opossums, cats, dogs and nine-banded armadillos (range: k = 0.3-0.5) than in humans (k = 5.1). The distribution of bloodstream parasite load closely followed the "80-20 rule" in every host species examined. However, the 20% of human hosts, domestic mammals or sylvatic mammals exhibiting the highest parasite load accounted for 49, 25 and 33% of the infected triatomines, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our results support the use of bloodstream parasite load as a proxy of reservoir host competence and individual transmissibility. The over-dispersed distribution of T. cruzi bloodstream load implies the existence of a fraction of highly infectious hosts that could be targeted to improve vector-borne transmission control efforts toward interruption transmission. Combined strategies that decrease the parasitemia and/or host-vector contact with these hosts would disproportionally contribute to T. cruzi transmission control.

High-resolution melting analysis identifies reservoir hosts of zoonotic Leishmania parasites in Tunisia.

BACKGROUND: Leishmaniasis is endemic in Tunisia and presents with different clinical forms, caused by the species Leishmania infantum, Leishmania major, and Leishmania tropica. The life cycle of Leishmania is complex and involves several phlebotomine sand fly vectors and mammalian reservoir hosts. The aim of this work is the development and evaluation of a high-resolution melting PCR (PCR-HRM) tool to detect and identify Leishmania parasites in wild and domestic hosts, constituting confirmed (dogs and Meriones rodents) or potential (hedgehogs) reservoirs in Tunisia. METHODS: Using in vitro-cultured Leishmania isolates, PCR-HRM reactions were developed targeting the 7SL RNA and HSP70 genes. Animals were captured or sampled in El Kef Governorate, North West Tunisia. DNA was extracted from the liver, spleen, kidney, and heart from hedgehogs (Atelerix algirus) (n = 3) and rodents (Meriones shawi) (n = 7) and from whole blood of dogs (n = 12) that did not present any symptoms of canine leishmaniasis. In total, 52 DNA samples were processed by PCR-HRM using both pairs of primers. RESULTS: The results showed melting curves enabling discrimination of the three Leishmania species present in Tunisia, and were further confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Application of PCR-HRM assays on reservoir host samples showed that overall among the examined samples, 45 were positive, while seven were negative, with no Leishmania infection. Meriones shawi were found infected with L. major, while dogs were infected with L. infantum. However, co-infections with L. major/L. infantum species were detected in four Meriones specimens and in all tested hedgehogs. In addition, multiple infections with the three Leishmania species were found in one hedgehog specimen. Sequence analyses of PCR-HRM products corroborated the Leishmania species found in analyzed samples. CONCLUSIONS: The results of PCR-HRM assays applied to field specimens further support the possibility of hedgehogs as reservoir hosts of Leishmania. In addition, we showed their usefulness in the diagnosis of canine leishmaniasis, specifically in asymptomatic dogs, which will ensure a better evaluation of infection extent, thus improving elaboration of control programs. This PCR-HRM method is a robust and reliable tool for molecular detection and identification of Leishmania and can be easily implemented in epidemiological surveys in endemic regions.

Plasmodium vivax - How hidden reservoirs hinder global malaria elimination.

Plasmodium vivax is the most geographically widespread human malaria parasite. Global malaria efforts have been less successful at reducing the burden of P. vivax compared to P. falciparum, owing to the unique biology and related treatment complexity of P. vivax. As a result, P. vivax is now the dominant malaria parasite throughout the Asia-Pacific and South America causing up to 14 million clinical cases every year and is considered a major obstacle to malaria elimination. Key features circumventing existing malaria control tools are the transmissibility of asymptomatic, low-density circulating infections and reservoirs of persistent dormant liver stages (hypnozoites) that are undetectable but reactivate to cause relapsing infections and sustain transmission. In this review we summarise the new knowledge shaping our understanding of the global epidemiology of P. vivax infections, highlighting the challenges for elimination and the tools that will be required achieve this.

Virome of Bat-Infesting Arthropods: Highly Divergent Viruses in Different Vectors.

Bats are reservoirs of important zoonotic viruses like Nipah and SARS viruses. However, whether the blood-sucking arthropods on the body surface of bats also carry these viruses and the relationship between viruses carried by the blood-sucking arthropods and viruses carried by bats have not been reported. This study collected 686 blood-sucking arthropods on the body surface of bats from Yunnan Province, China, between 2012 and 2015, and they included wingless bat flies, bat flies, ticks, mites, and fleas. The viruses carried by these arthropods were analyzed using a meta-transcriptomic approach, and 144 highly diverse positive-sense single-stranded RNA, negative-sense single-stranded RNA, and double-stranded RNA viruses were found, of which 138 were potentially new viruses. These viruses were classified into 14 different virus families or orders, including Bunyavirales, Mononegavirales, Reoviridae, and Picornavirales. Further analyses found that Bunyavirales were the most abundant virus group (84% of total virus RNA) in ticks, whereas narnaviruses were the most abundant (52 to 92%) in the bat flies and wingless bat flies libraries, followed by solemoviruses (1 to 29%) and reoviruses (0 to 43%). These viruses were highly structured based on the arthropod types. It is worth noting that no bat-borne zoonotic viruses were found in the virome of bat-infesting arthropod, seemingly not supporting that bat surface arthropods are vectors of zoonotic viruses carried by bats. IMPORTANCE Bats are reservoirs of many important viral pathogens. To evaluate whether bat-parasitic blood-sucking arthropods participate in the circulation of these important viruses, it is necessary to conduct unbiased virome studies on these arthropods. We evaluated five types of blood-sucking parasitic arthropods on the surface of bats in Yunnan, China, and identified a variety of viruses, some of which had high prevalence and abundance levels, although there is limited overlap in virome between distant arthropods. While most of the virome discovered here is potentially arthropod-specific viruses, we identified three possible arboviruses, including one orthobunyavirus and two vesiculoviruses (family Rhabdoviridae), suggesting bat-parasitic arthropods carry viruses with risk of spillage, which warrants further study.

Free-ranging pigs identified as a multi-reservoir of Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense in the Vavoua area, a historical sleeping sickness focus of Côte d'Ivoire.

BACKGROUND: The existence of an animal reservoir of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T. b. gambiense), the agent of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), may compromise the interruption of transmission targeted by World Health Organization. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of trypanosomes in pigs and people in the Vavoua HAT historical focus where cases were still diagnosed in the early 2010's. METHODS: For the human survey, we used the CATT, mini-anion exchange centrifugation technique and immune trypanolysis tests. For the animal survey, the buffy coat technique was also used as well as the PCR using Trypanosoma species specific, including the T. b. gambiense TgsGP detection using single round and nested PCRs, performed from animal blood samples and from strains isolated from subjects positive for parasitological investigations. RESULTS: No HAT cases were detected among 345 people tested. A total of 167 pigs were investigated. Free-ranging pigs appeared significantly more infected than pigs in pen. Over 70% of free-ranging pigs were positive for CATT and parasitological investigations and 27-43% were positive to trypanolysis depending on the antigen used. T. brucei was the most prevalent species (57%) followed by T. congolense (24%). Blood sample extracted DNA of T. brucei positive subjects were negative to single round TgsGP PCR. However, 1/22 and 6/22 isolated strains were positive with single round and nested TgsGP PCRs, respectively. DISCUSSION: Free-ranging pigs were identified as a multi-reservoir of T. brucei and/or T. congolense with mixed infections of different strains. This trypanosome diversity hinders the easy and direct detection of T. b. gambiense. We highlight the lack of tools to prove or exclude with certainty the presence of T. b. gambiense. This study once more highlights the need of technical improvements to explore the role of animals in the epidemiology of HAT.

Species diversity and distribution of schistosome intermediate snail hosts in The Gambia.

There is a need for recent information on intermediate snail hosts of schistosomes in The Gambia; the previous studies were conducted over three decades ago. This study assessed the incidence, species diversity, distribution and infection status of schistosome intermediate snail hosts in the country. Malacological surveys were conducted in all 5 regions of The Gambia: Central River Region (CRR), Upper River Region (URR), Western Region (WR), Lower River Region (LRR) and North Bank Region (NBR). Sampling of snails was undertaken at 114 sites that included permanent water bodies such as streams (bolongs), rice fields, irrigation canals and swamps; and temporal (seasonal) laterite pools. Ecological and physicochemical factors of sites were recorded. Snails were identified morphologically and screened for schistosome infections using molecular techniques. Freshwater snails were found at more than 50% (60/114) of sites sampled. While three species of Bulinus were collected, no Biomphalaria snails were found in any of the sites sampled. Of the total 2877 Bulinus snails collected, 75.9% were identified as Bulinus senegalensis, 20.9% as Bulinus forskalii and 3.2% as Bulinus truncatus. Seasonal pools produced the largest number of snails, and CRR was the region with the largest number of snails. Bulinus senegalensis was found more in seasonal pools as opposed to permanent sites, where B. forskalii and B. truncatus were observed to thrive. Bulinus snails were more common in seasonal sites where aquatic vegetation was present. In permanent sites, the abundance of snails increased with increase in water temperature and decrease in water pH. Bulinus senegalensis was found infected with both S. haematobium and S. bovis, while B. forskalii and B. truncatus had only S. bovis infection. While the human parasite S. haematobium was restricted to just four sites, the livestock parasite S. bovis had a much more widespread geographical distribution across both CRR and URR. This new information on the distribution of intermediate snail hosts of schistosomes in The Gambia will be vital for the national schistosomiasis control initiative.

Schistosome infection in Senegal is associated with different spatial extents of risk and ecological drivers for Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni.

Schistosome parasites infect more than 200 million people annually, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa, where people may be co-infected with more than one species of the parasite. Infection risk for any single species is determined, in part, by the distribution of its obligate intermediate host snail. As the World Health Organization reprioritizes snail control to reduce the global burden of schistosomiasis, there is renewed importance in knowing when and where to target those efforts, which could vary by schistosome species. This study estimates factors associated with schistosomiasis risk in 16 villages located in the Senegal River Basin, a region hyperendemic for Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni. We first analyzed the spatial distributions of the two schistosomes' intermediate host snails (Bulinus spp. and Biomphalaria pfeifferi, respectively) at village water access sites. Then, we separately evaluated the relationships between human S. haematobium and S. mansoni infections and (i) the area of remotely-sensed snail habitat across spatial extents ranging from 1 to 120 m from shorelines, and (ii) water access site size and shape characteristics. We compared the influence of snail habitat across spatial extents because, while snail sampling is traditionally done near shorelines, we hypothesized that snails further from shore also contribute to infection risk. We found that, controlling for demographic variables, human risk for S. haematobium infection was positively correlated with snail habitat when snail habitat was measured over a much greater radius from shore (45 m to 120 m) than usual. S. haematobium risk was also associated with large, open water access sites. However, S. mansoni infection risk was associated with small, sheltered water access sites, and was not positively correlated with snail habitat at any spatial sampling radius. Our findings highlight the need to consider different ecological and environmental factors driving the transmission of each schistosome species in co-endemic landscapes.

Relationship among bats, parasitic bat flies, and associated pathogens in Korea.

BACKGROUND: Bats are hosts for many ectoparasites and act as reservoirs for several infectious agents, some of which exhibit zoonotic potential. Here, species of bats and bat flies were identified and screened for microorganisms that could be mediated by bat flies. METHODS: Bat species were identified on the basis of their morphological characteristics. Bat flies associated with bat species were initially morphologically identified and further identified at the genus level by analyzing the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. Different vector-borne pathogens and endosymbionts were screened using PCR to assess all possible relationships among bats, parasitic bat flies, and their associated organisms. RESULTS: Seventy-four bat flies were collected from 198 bats; 66 of these belonged to Nycteribiidae and eight to Streblidae families. All Streblidae bat flies were hosted by Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, known as the most common Korean bat. Among the 74 tested bat flies, PCR and nucleotide sequencing data showed that 35 (47.3%) and 20 (27.0%) carried Wolbachia and Bartonella bacteria, respectively, whereas tests for Anaplasma, Borrelia, Hepatozoon, Babesia, Theileria, and Coxiella were negative. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Wolbachia endosymbionts belonged to two different supergroups, A and F. One sequence of Bartonella was identical to that of Bartonella isolated from Taiwanese bats. CONCLUSIONS: The vectorial role of bat flies should be checked by testing the same pathogen and bacterial organisms by collecting blood from host bats. This study is of great interest in the fields of disease ecology and public health owing to the bats' potential to transmit pathogens to humans and/or livestock.

Emergence of Babesia conradae infection in coyote-hunting Greyhounds in Oklahoma, USA.

BACKGROUND: Babesia species are intraerythrocytic Apicomplexan parasites that infect a wide range of vertebrate hosts. These pathogens are typically transmitted either by tick vectors or by direct blood-to-blood contact, and may cause life-threatening clinical disease, such as thrombocytopenia, hemolytic anemia and acute renal failure, in canine hosts. While Babesia vogeli and Babesia gibsoni infections have both been reported in Oklahoma, reports of Babesia conradae infections have been limited to California. METHODS: Four separate kennels of coyote-hunting dogs were identified in Oklahoma after the kennels had consulted with Oklahoma State University Boren Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital (antemortem cases) or the Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Lab (postmortem cases). Upon owner consent, every accessible dog from each of the four kennels was briefly examined for ectoparasites, particularly ticks, and whole blood samples were collected in EDTA tubes. Clinically ill dogs were examined by a practicing veterinarian, and clinical signs included anorexia, vomiting, lethargy, fever and anemia. DNA was extracted from each blood sample, and a nested PCR was performed using general apicomplexan primers for the partial 18S rRNA gene. PCR products were electrophoresed in agarose matrix, and appropriately sized amplicons were sequenced. Sequences were compared to reference 18S rRNA gene sequences available in GenBank, and samples with > 98% homology to B. conradae (GenBank: AF158702) were considered positive. Babesia conradae-positive dogs were then treated with atovaquone (13.5 mg/kg three times per day) and azithromycin (10 mg/kg once daily) for 10 days and retested at 30 and 60 days post-treatment by PCR. RESULTS: Of 40 dogs tested, 15 (37.5%) were positive for B. conradae with 98-99% sequence homology to B. conradae from California. All positive cases were coyote-hunting Greyhounds. Ectoparasites were not identified on any of the dogs at the time of blood collection. Treatment of clinically ill dogs with atovaquone and azithromycin resulted in complete clinical recovery in all treated dogs with negative follow-up PCR at 30 and 60 days post-treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, this study (i) documents the occurrence of B. conradae in Oklahoma, (ii) highlights this pathogen as a differential to be considered when clinical signs are present, (iii) supports the use of atovaquone and azithromycin as effective treatment in these cases and (iv) demonstrates chronic subclinical carrier dogs serving as potential reservoirs of B. conradae infection to naïve dogs.

Abdominal angiostrongyliasis in the Americas: fifty years since the discovery of a new metastrongylid species, Angiostrongylus costaricensis.

Angiostrongylus costaricensis is a zoonotic parasitic nematode described for the first time in 1971 by Pedro Morera and Rodolfo Céspedes in Costa Rica. This parasite causes an infection known as abdominal angiostrongyliasis, affecting mainly school-aged children and young adults. Infection with A. costaricensis has been associated with a myriad of rodent and mollusk species in the Americas and the Caribbean, as its natural hosts and reservoirs. In this commemorative review, we highlight the extensive research collected through a 50-year journey, which includes ecological, pathological, and molecular studies on A. costaricensis and its implicated disease. We also identify major knowledge gaps in its evolutionary history, the ecological role of imported and invasive mollusk species, and immune response. We propose that the advent of -omics analyses will allow us to gather novel information regarding A. costaricensis biology and infection dynamics, as well as to promote the design of much-needed sensitive and specific diagnostic tools.

Role of wild rabbits as reservoirs of leishmaniasis in a non-epidemic Mediterranean hot spot in Spain.

There is limited information regarding the role of wild mammals in the transmission dynamics of Leishmania infantum. A potential human leishmaniasis hot spot was detected in southern Spain that could not be explained solely by canine leishmaniasis prevalence. The aim of this work was to analyse the involvement of wild rabbits as the main factor affecting this Mediterranean hot spot. A survey of wild rabbits, dogs and sand flies was conducted in the human cases environment. A nearby region without clinical leishmaniasis cases was used as reference control. 51 wild rabbits shot by hunters were analysed by molecular techniques. 1100 sand flies were captured and morphologically identified. Blood collected from patients' relatives/ neighbours (n = 9) and dogs (n = 66) was used for molecular analysis and serology. In Mediterranean leishmaniasis hot spots such as Montefrío municipality (average incidence of 16.8 human cases per 100,000 inhabitants/year), wild rabbits (n = 40) support high L. infantum infection rates (100%) and heavy parasite burdens (average value: 503 parasites/mg) in apparently normal ear skin directly accessible to sand flies, enabling the existence of heavily parasitized Phlebotomus perniciosus females (12.5% prevalence). The prevalence of infection and median parasite load were very low among rabbits captured in Huéscar (n = 11), a human clinical leishmaniasis-free area for the last 18 years. P. perniciosus was the most abundant Phlebotomus species in all the domestic/peridomestic microhabitats sampled, both indoors and outdoors. Accordingly, leishmaniasis is clustering in space and time at this local scale represented by Montefrío due to the proximity of two competent host reservoirs (dogs and heavily parasitized wild rabbits) associated with overlapping sylvatic and domestic transmission cycles through the main vector, P. perniciosus. We highlight the usefulness of determining the prevalence of infection and parasite burden in wild rabbits as a control leishmaniasis measure with the advantage that the use of the ear offers.